Arch of Titus

The fluted and unfluted column section

The Arch of Titus (Italian: Arco di Tito; Latin: Arcus Titi), located just to the southeast of the Roman Forum, is one of the most celebrated monuments in the Forum Romanum.  This honorific arch was constructed from A.D. 82 – 85 by Emperor Domitian, shortly after the death of his older brother Titus (who died suddenly during a plague A.D. 81, after only a two year reign), to commemorate the immensely popular Titus’ victories, including the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE).

Since the 16th century, this 1st-century A.D. arch has provided the general model for many triumphal arches erected. Perhaps, most famously, it is the inspiration for the Arc de Triomphe (which maintains the exact proportions of the Arch of Titus, though several times larger), in Paris, France. Domitian‘s favored architect Rabirius, sometimes credited with the Colosseum, may have executed the arch based on the style of sculptural details.

The large 15 m. high arch has both fluted and distinguishably unfluted columns, the latter being a result of modern restoration, starting with Raffaele Stern in 1817 and continued in 1821 by architect Giuseppe Valadier, under Pope Pius VII (with new capitals, new inscriptions on the opposite side, and restoration intentionally made in travertine masonry to differentiate between the original and the restored portions).

Winged women, personifications of victory, at spandrels

Winged women, personifications of victory, are found at the spandrels on the upper left and right of the arch. They stand on a globe and hold banners, trophies, laurel wreaths, and palm fronds. The keystone, between the spandrels, has a female on the east side and a male on the west side, both representing Roma and the Genius of the Roman people.

The deeply coffered soffit of the axial archway has, at the center, a relief of the apotheosis of Titus, showing him riding an eagle to heaven, where he’ll become one of the gods. Two 2.04 m high by 3.85 m long panel reliefs, commemorating the joint triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in the summer of 71, line the passageway within the arch.

The apotheosis of Titus

The south panel (likely originally colored gold, with the background in blue) depicts the triumphal procession as it passes through the Porta Triumphalis to the Forum Boarium, with the participants carrying booty taken from the Temple in Jerusalem (one of the few contemporary depictions of Temple period artifacts).

It features a golden 7-branched  Menorah (candelabrum), carved in deep relief, as the main focus plus other sacred objects being carried in the procession such as the Gold Trumpets, fire pans (for removing the ashes from the altar), the Table of Shew bread and, perhaps, even the Ark of the Covenant. In 2012, remains of yellow ocher paint on the menorah relief were discovered by the Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project. The menorah depicted on the Arch, later to become a symbol of the Jewish diaspora, served as the model for the menorah used on the emblem of the state of Israel.

The quadriga (four-horsed chariot) carrying Titus

The north panel depicts Titus as triumphator, attended by various genii and lictors that carry fasces. The quadriga (four-horsed chariot) carrying Titus, crowned with a laurel wreath by a winged Victory, is lead by Valour, a helmeted Amazon holding the bridle of one of the horses. The two figures to the right of the chariot personify the people of Rome (naked torso) and the Senate (wearing a toga).

Significant as one of the first examples of divinities and humans being present in one scene together, it contrasts with the panels of the Ara Pacis, where humans and divinities are separated. It is also the first full attempt by Roman sculptors to create the illusion of space.

“The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus Augustus, son of the divine Vespasian.”

In the Middle Ages, when the Frangipani family turned it into a fortified tower, the sculpture of the outer faces of the two great piers was lost when the arch was incorporated in medieval defensive walls. The attic of the arch was originally crowned by more statuary, perhaps of a bronze quadriga, and the main inscription used to be ornamented by letters made of perhaps silver, gold or some other metal.

“(This) monument, remarkable in terms of both religion and art,
had weakened from age: Pius the Seventh, Supreme Pontiff,
by new works on the model of the ancient exemplar
ordered it reinforced and preserved in the 24th year of his sacred rulership”

Arch of Titus: Via Sacra, 00186 Rome, Italy.

Arch of Constantine

Situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill is the Arch of Constantine (Italian: Arco di Costantino), a triumphal arch erected and dedicated on July 25, 315 by the Roman Senate to commemorate,  as described on its attic inscription, Constantine I‘s victory over  the then reigning emperor  Maxentius (306–312) at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312.  The largest and the last of

West side o the arch

the existing Roman triumphal arches, it spans the Via triumphalis, the way taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph.

Though dedicated to Constantine, this 21 m. high, 25.9 m. wide and 7.4 m. deep arch is actually a collage incorporating much of the decorative material from earlier work from the time of the emperors Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180).

Attic detail, south – left side

It is also the only one to make extensive use of spolia, reusing several major reliefs from 2nd century imperial monuments to make up for the lack of time to create new art. The most impressive surviving civic monument from Rome in Late Antiquity, it is, with regards to its origins and meanings, also one of the most controversial.

Attic detail, south – right side

The arch has three archways, the central one being 11.5 m. high and 6.5 m. wide and the lateral archways 7.4 m. by 3.4 m. each. The attic, above the archways, is composed of brickwork reveted (faced) with marble.

Inscription at the top of the attic – “To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus: because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs”

The emperor sacrificing a pig, sheep and bull (suovetaurilia)

On the top of each column, large sculptures representing Dacians, dating from the time of Trajan, can be seen, which. Above the central archway, identical on both sides of the arch, is the inscription, forming the most prominent portion of the attic.

Above the minor lateral archways, flanking the inscription on both sides, are four pairs of relief panels (eight in total), taken from an unknown monument.

It commemorates Marcus Aurelius’ war against the Marcomanni and the Sarmatians from 169 – 175, which ended with Marcus Aurelius’ triumphant return in 176. They are, from left to right:

• the emperor’s return to Rome after the campaign (adventus) – north side
• the emperor leaving the city and saluted by a personification of theVia Flaminia – north side
• the emperor distributing money among the people (largitio) – north side
• the emperor interrogating a German prisoner – north side
• a captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor – south side
• other prisoners led before the emperor – south side
• the emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio) – south side
• the emperor sacrificing a pig, sheep and bull (suovetaurilia) – south side

Captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor

From the same time period the two large (3 m high) panels decorating the attic on the east and west sides of the arch show scenes from Trajan‘s Dacian Wars.

Together with the two reliefs on the inside of the central archway, these came from a large frieze celebrating the Dacian victory.

The general layout of the main facade is identical on both sides of the arch.  The four columns (one of which has been transferred into the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano and was replaced by a white marble column), on bases (plinths or socles), are of the Corinthian order, decorated on three sides and made of Numidian yellow marble (giallo antico).

The emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio)

Other prisoners led before the emperor

They divide the structure into a central arch and two lateral arches, the latter being surmounted by two round reliefs, dating to the times of Emperor Hadrian, over horizontal friezes.

The reliefs on the front show Victoria, either inscribing a shield or holding palm branches.  Those to the side show captured barbarians alone or with Roman soldiers.

The pairs of round reliefs display scenes of hunting and sacrificing:

• hunt of a boar – north side
• sacrifice toApollo – north side
• hunt of a lion– north side
• sacrifice toHercules – north side
• the departure for the hunt – south side
• sacrifice toSilvanus – south side
• the hunt of a bear – south side
• sacrifice toDiana – south side

Relief detail – left

Round relief, south side – Sacrifice to Silvanus

In all the medallions, the head of the emperor, originally Hadrian’s, has been reworked.  On the north side, it has been reworked into Constantine in the hunting scenes and into Licinius or Constantius I in the sacrifice scenes.  On the south side, it’s vice versa. The porphyry framing of the 2 m. diameter reliefs is only extant on the right side of the northern facade. Similar medallions, also during Constantine’s time, are located on the small sides of the arch.   The Sun and the Moon, both on chariots, rises on the eastern and western sides, respectively.

Round relief, south side – Sacrifice to Diana

The spandrel of the main arch is decorated with reliefs depicting victory figures with trophies while those of the lateral arches show river gods. The bases of the columns and the spandrel reliefs are from the time of Constantine. The “historical,” horizontal frieze below the round reliefs depict scenes from the Italian campaign of Constantine against Maxentius (which was the reason for the construction of the monument), one strip above each lateral archway and including the west and east sides of the arch.  Running around the monument, they are the main parts from the time of Constantine.

Relief detail – right

Round relief, south side – Sacrifice to Silvanus

The frieze starts at the western side with the Departure from Milan (Profectio), continues on the southern face, with the Siege of Verona (Obsidio) on the left (southwest), an event which was of great importance to the war in Northern Italy. The Battle of Milvian Bridge (Proelium), with Constantine’s army victorious and the enemy drowning in the Tiber River , is depicted on the right (southeast).

Round relief, south side – The hunt of a bear

Constantine and his army enter Rome (Ingressus) is depicted on the eastern side while on the northern face, looking towards the city, are two strips with the emperor’s actions after taking possession of Rome. On the left (northeast) is Constantine speaking to the citizens on the Forum Romanum (Oratio) while the final panel, to the right (northwest), depicts Constantine distributing money to the people (Liberalitas).

Spandrel over main arch

On each wall of the central archway is one large panel of Trajan’s Dacian War. Eight portraits busts (two on each wall) inside the lateral archways are destroyed, to such an extent that it is no longer possible to identify them.

Scenes from Trajan’s Dacian Wars

Arch of Constantine : Via di San Gregorio, Rome, Italy.